In our 161st episode, we acquired to speak with Mark Hallett and Dr. Mathew J. Wedel, the creators of the ebook, The Sauropod Dinosaurs: Life within the Age of Giants, printed in 2016 by Johns Hopkins College Press. (Massive thanks to Mark, who gave us some wonderful photos to share, together with his art work for his 2018 calendar!)
Mark is a paleoartist and writer, whose work has been featured in Life, Smithsonian, Pure Historical past and Nationwide Geographic journal, in addition to books, artwork galleries, and museums everywhere in the world. He was additionally the artist guide for the films Jurassic Park and Dinosaur.
Matt is a vertebrate paleontologist who research sauropod dinosaurs and the evolution of pneumatic bones in dinosaurs and birds and an affiliate professor of anatomy at Western College of Well being Sciences. He co-authored the papers naming the dinosaurs Sauroposeidon, Brontomerus, and Aquilops. And he co-founded the web site Sauropod Vertebra Image of the Week.
You may also study extra about their work and passions at Artists for Conservation and Prehistoric Instances.
Episode 161 can also be about Apatosaurus, a sauropod whose identify means “misleading lizard.”
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On this episode, we focus on:
Information:
The dinosaur of the day: Apatosaurus
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- Sauropod that lived within the Jurassic in what’s now North America
- Title means “misleading lizard”
- Named in 1877 by Othniel Charles Marsh (named the primary recognized species, Apatosaurus ajax)
- The Apatosaurus holotype was present in 1860 in Gunnison County, Colorado
- Marsh gave Apatosaurus its identify due to its chevron bones, that are much like mosasaurs (and never different dinosaurs)
- When this skeleton was being excavated and transported, its bones have been combined with one other Apatosaurus speciman (initially described as Atlantosaurus immanis), so some options it’s unclear in the event that they belong to Apatosaurus or Atlantosaurus
- Marsh mentioned the distinction between Apatosaurus and Atlantosaurus was the variety of sacral vertebrae (Apatosaurus had three and Atlantosaurus had 4)
- Numerous Apatosaurus species have been named, primarily based on fragments (Marsh named many species through the Bone Wars)
- Marsh named Apatosaurus ajax in 1877 after Ajax, a Greek mythology hero (holotype is incomplete, and hasn’t been studied as a lot as different species)
- Atlantosaurus inmanis could also be a junior synonym of Apatosaurus ajax
- Marsh named Apatosaurus grandis in 1877, however then he reassigned it to Morosaurus in 1878. Morosaurus is now thought-about to be a synonym of Camarasaurus
- There’s additionally Apatosaurus parvus, which was first described in 1902 by Peterson and Gilmore as Elosaurus, then reclassified as Apatosaurus in 1994. In 2015, it was reassigned to Brontosaurus
- Additionally, Apatosaurus minimus, initially described in 1904 as Brontosaurus by Osborn. Henry Mook named it Apatosaurus minimus in 1917, then in 2012 Mike Taylor and Matt Wedel described materials as “Apatosaurus” minimus, so it’s unclear
- In 1957 Albert-Félix de Lapparent and Georges Zbyweski named Apatosaurus alenquerensis, primarily based on materials present in Portugal, however in 1990 this was reclassified as Camarasaurus and in 1998 it was renamed Lourinhasaurus
- In 1994 James Filla and Patrick Redman named Apatosaurus yahnahpin, which in 1998 Bakker made the kind species of latest genus Eobrontosaurus, and Tschopp reclassified as Brontosaurus in 2015
- William Holland named Apatosaurus louisae in 1916, primarily based on a partial skeleton present in Utah
- For a very long time Brontosaurus was regarded as a junior synonym of Apatosaurus
- In 1879, Marsh named Brontosaurus excelsus
- Elmer Riggs described a diplodicid present in Colorado in 1903. He thought the place it was discovered was related in age to the place Marsh discovered Brontosaurus. Riggs in contrast the skeleton with Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus ajax, and located that the holotype for Apatosaurus ajax was a juvenile, and that the options that distinguished Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus weren’t legitimate. Apatosaurus was named first, which is why Brontosaurus was regarded as a junior synonym.
- Bob Bakker argued within the Nineties that Brontosaurus and Apatosaurus have been two separate genera
- Tschopp and others reclassified Brontosaurus as a sound genus in 2015, although not everybody agrees (extra in episode 100)
- The identify Brontosaurus caught round, even when it wasn’t thought-about to be a sound genus
- Elmer Riggs had printed his findings in an obscure journal, so not many individuals knew about his conclusions on the time
- Additionally, Brontosaurus/Apatosaurus was the primary sauropod skeleton mounted (specimen quantity 460, often assigned to Apatosaurus, was mounted within the American Museum of Pure Historical past. It was present in 1898 by Walter Granger in Wyoming. The mounted skeleton have been lacking the pinnacle, ft, and components of the tail, so Apatosaurus ft and components of the tail present in the identical quarry have been used. The cranium was sculpted primarily based on the “”the largest, thickest, strongest cranium bones, decrease jaws and tooth crowns from three totally different quarries”, in all probability from Camarasaurus (solely different sauropod on the time with recognized good cranium materials). Adam Hermann oversaw the mount, and he sculpted a stand-in cranium by hand. Osborn mentioned it was “largely conjectural and primarily based on that of Morosaurus” (now Camarasaurus). The mount was labeled as Brontosaurus
- As a result of AMNH was so in style, Brontosaurus turned one of the vital well-known dinosaurs
- The identify Brontosaurus was utilized in popular culture (Gertie the Dinosaur, The Misplaced World, and because the brand of the Sinclair oil firm, in addition to Dino within the Flintstones, and as a dinosaur stamp in 1989)
- Apatosaurus had a cranium much like Diplodocus, although for a very long time it was regarded as much like Camarasaurus
- Cranium was comparatively small
- An Apatosaurus cranium was present in 1909 in an expedition led by Earl Douglass, within the Carnegie Quarry at Dinosaur Nationwide Monument. It was discovered close to the Apatosaurus louisae specimen (named after Louise Carnegie, Andrew Carnegie’s spouse). The cranium was much like Diplodocus. Douglass and William H. Holland, and different scientists, thought it was an Apatosaurus cranium however not everybody agreed (like Henry Fairfeld Osborn, who mounted an Apatosaurus skeleton with a Camarasaurus cranium forged within the American Museum of Pure Historical past). Holland defended this view in 1914, however he didn’t mount a head on the Carnegie Museum skeleton (presumably he was ready for an articulated cranium and neck to be discovered to verify it was the fitting cranium). Holland died in 1934 and museum employees put a Camarasaurus cranium on the mount
- Yale Peabody Museum sculpted a cranium for his or her mount, primarily based on the decrease jaw of a Camarasaurus and Marsh’s 1891 illustration
- Within the Seventies John Stanton McIntosh and David Berman redescribed Diplodocus and Apatosaurus skulls, and so they discovered that Apatosaurus cranium was much like Diplodocus, and that many skulls regarded as Apatosaurus have been really Diplodocus. They reassigned skulls
- In 1979, the Carnegie Museum mounted the primary true Apatosaurus cranium
- In 2011 the primary articulated Apatosaurus cranium was described (specimen had related cervical vertebrae as Apatosaurus ajax and totally different neck and cranium options from Apatosaurus louisae)
- Mossbrucker discovered the primary Apatosaurus ajax snout in 2013
- Brigham Younger College has a specimen with a effectively preserved cranium and skeleton, and a preserved braincase, present in western Colorado
- Apatosaurus was discovered within the Morrison Formation in Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Utah
- Apatosaurus was the second commonest sauropod discovered within the Morrison Formation (Camarasaurus was the primary)
- Probably the most full Apatosaurus discovered up to now is nicknamed Einstein
- Apatosaurus might have been extra solitary than different dinosaurs within the Morrison Formation
- Different dinosaurs that lived in the identical time and place embody Allosaurus, Camarasaurus, Diplodocus, Stegosaurus
- Carnivores that lived across the identical time and place included Ceratosaurus, Allosaurus, Torvosaurus
- A part of the household Diplodocidae (different dinosaurs embody Diplodocus, Supersaurus, Barosaurus)
- A part of the subfamily Apatosaurinae (named in 1929); solely different genus within the subfamily is Brontosaurus
- Apatosaurus had a stockier construct than Diplodocus
- On common was about 69-75 ft (21-22.8 m) lengthy, and weighed about 18-25 quick tons (although some have been longer and weighed extra)
- Apatosaurus had necks that have been totally different from different diplodocids, and will have used them for intraspecific fight
- Had paired spines, which gave it a large, thick and lengthy neck, and a deep chest
- Numerous debate over how versatile or rigid its neck was
- Some say Apatosaurus might have had an rigid neck, held horizontally to a barely upwards angle (might have been area of interest partitioning so several types of sauropods may stay collectively)
- A 2009 research argued that Apatosaurus might have held its neck excessive and had a versatile neck, primarily based on comparisons with extant animals
- Some debate over how Apatosaurus used its neck for feeding (excessive browser, low browser). Kent Stevens and Michael Parrish in 1999 and 2005 mentioned Apatosaurus had a large neck vary of motion. In 2013, Matthew Cobley and others mentioned it had restricted neck motion attributable to giant muscular tissues and cartilage, and in addition that sauropods like Diplodocus might have moved their entire our bodies to eat and will have spent extra time foraging. Nonetheless, Taylor discovered that Apatosaurus had a versatile neck
- A 2013 research regarded on the flexibility of ostrich necks (probably the most much like sauropod necks) and located that earlier fashions of neck flexibility didn’t account for gentle tissues so it’s unclear how versatile and the way excessive Apatosaurus necks may very well be held
- Apatosaurus in all probability saved its tail above the bottom, for counterbalance
- Had tall neural spines
- Had a slender tail, which is totally different from different diplodocids
- Could have used its tail as a whip to create loud sounds
- In 1997, Nathan Myhrvold and Philip Currie did a pc simulation of an Apatosaurus tail, and located it may make a whiplike sound of greater than 200 decibels
- Tail was in all probability too slender on the tip, so couldn’t harm predators and be used as a weapon, and will have been broken if used for attacking
- One Apatosaurus tail has been discovered with a pathology, attributable to a development defect
- Apatosaurus, like many different sauropods, have been initially thought to have been semi-aquatic, although individuals not suppose that is true (positively terrestrial)
- Quadrupedal, with forelimbs being barely shorter than hindlimbs
- Sauropod trackways present they could have moved as much as 12-19 mi (20-30km) per hour
- Apatosaurus in all probability had the same respiratory system as birds, with air sacs within the neck (helped make the bones lighter)
- Could have had a heat blooded metabolism (had a big physique mass, with a comparatively small floor space which implies the physique has thick inner organs and the outer layers of tissue insulate the interior layers, so there’s a excessive base temperature). This will imply Apatosaurus metabolism might have labored equally to mammals.
- Another excuse Apatosaurus might have had a heat blooded metabolism relies on how briskly juveniles grew
- Apatosaurus grew shortly as a juvenile and have become close to full dimension round 10 years, primarily based on a research in 1999
- Thomas Lehman and Holly Woodward present in 2008 that Apatosaurus might have grown 25 tons in 15 years, peaking at 11,000 lb (5,000 kg) in a single 12 months, primarily based on development strains and length-to-mass ratios. One other technique with limb size and physique mass, discovered Apatosaurus grew 1,150 lb (520 kg) per 12 months, and reached full weight at 70 years previous. However these estimates usually are not thought-about to be dependable, since previous development strains would have been tousled by bone transforming
- Some specimen’s ages have been estimated. Eva Griebeler and others in 2013 discovered that one specimen reached maturity at age 21 and died at age 28, and one other reached maturity at age 19 and died at age 31
- Numerous juvenile Apatosaurus have been discovered. Juveniles are likely to have shorter necks and tails, and a much bigger distinction between the size of their forelimbs and hindlimbs
- Apatosaurus footprints have been present in Morrison, Colorado, in 2008, that indicated juveniles may run on two legs
- Had a claw on every forelimb and three claws on every hindlimb
- Claw on the forelimb might have been used for protection (unlikely although primarily based on form and dimension), additionally presumably used for feeding, however more than likely used to seize issues like tree trunks, when rearing up
- Herbivore, and had chisel-like enamel
- A normal browser, that saved its head elevated
- May in all probability eat 880 lb (400 kg) of meals per day
- Had intestine microbes to assist them digest vegetation, and so they might have swallowed numerous meals with out chewing
- In 2014 there was a hoax article going round that claimed John Moore College within the UK cloned a child Apatosaurus nicknamed “Spot”, and included an image of a hairless child kangaroo
- There’s an Apatosaurus tune, by Storybots, on Youtube. It’s a children tune and never that scientifically correct, however type of catchy (one of many strains is, “my neck’s so lengthy, and so robust”)
Enjoyable Truth:
Bone cores from horns don’t all the time inform the entire story in regards to the form of the general horn. Typically keratin coverings add additional curves or size not clear by the bone alone.
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